The sentence is the fundamental (the smallest) unit of syntax. It is traditionally understood as a grammatically arranged group of words, which is generally used to make an utterance expressing a complete thought. [Петрова, 5] In writing, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. In speaking, it is pronounced as a separate tone group.
A sentence may consist of a single word or a combination of words.
STRUCTURAL TYPES OF SENTENCES
Two-Member Sentences, One-Member Sentences, Elliptical Sentences
Sentences are divided into two main types: two-member sentences (двусоставные) and one-member sentences (односоставные).
The usual type of sentence is the two-member sentence that comprises a subject and a predicate: e.g. She walked fast between the flowers... (Galsworthy)
The sky is still warm with the after-glow of sunset... (Gissing)
A one-member sentence does not comprise a subject and a predicate, but consists only of one principle part, which can only conditionally be interpreted as subject or predicate:
E.g. Another day of fog. (London)
E.g. The sky, the flowers, the songs of birds! (Galsworthy)
Elliptical sentences (неполные) are such sentences in which one or several part is felt as missing compared with the analogous sentences where there is no ellipsis. e.g. "What were you doing?" "Drinking." (Shaw)
Unextended and Extended Sentences
The subject and the predicate are the principle parts of the sentence; they may form a sentence without the addition of any other parts of the sentence:
E.g. The sky was cloudless. (Dickens)
E.g. The train stepped. (Galsworthy)
All the other parts of the sentence (object, attribute, adverbial modifier) are called the secondary parts of the sentence.
A sentence which comprises only a subject and a predicate is called an unextended sentence: E.g. The air was still. (Gissing)
E.g. Mr. Carker smiled. (Dickens)
The sentence which besides the subject and the predicate comprises some secondary parts is called an extended sentence:
E.g. The rich [attribute] sweet [attribute] smell [subject] of the hay-ricks [attribute] rose [predicate] to his [attribute] chamber [attribute] window [adverbial modifier]. (Dickens)
The subject and the predicate with all the secondary parts of the sentence, which modify them, constitute the group of the subject and the group of the predicate;
E.g. Two white swans [the group of the subject] came majestically by... [the group of the predicate] (Galsworthy)
The secondary parts of the sentences may have their own modifiers and accordingly form the group of the object, the group of the attribute, the group of the adverbial modifier:
E.g. ...a new cage with gilded wires [the group of the attribute] had been provided for the ancient little canary bird [the group of the object] (Dickens)
Simple and Composite Sentences
Sentences may also be divided into simple and composite. A simple sentence is a separate two-member or one-member or a part of a composite sentence. A composite sentence consists of two or more simple sentences. Composite sentences can be further subdivided into compound and complex sentences.
A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated simple sentences:
E.g. It was full late for the river, but the weather was lovely, and summer lingered below the yellowing leaves. (Galsworthy)
A complex sentence consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses:
E.g. I don't quite understand what you mean. (Voynich)
E.g. A quick light step approached the room in which I was. (Dickens)
Elliptical Sentences
Elliptical sentences are such sentences in which one or more parts are felt as missing compared with analogous sentences where there is no ellipsis. Elliptical sentences may freely be changed into complete sentences:
E.g. Nobody in the room, nobody in the corridor = There was nobody in the room, there was nobody in the corridor.
The missing part of an elliptical sentence may be supplied:
a) from the preceding or following context
E.g. I sat near the window, he – near the door
b) from the context of the sentence itself
E.g. I ran after him, but he - over the garden wall.
c) by means of intonation
E.g. Playing, children? (= are you playing, children?)
The following parts of the sentence may be omitted:
1) Subject:
E.g. Was trying to work on CV without Perpetua noticing… (H. Fielding Bridget Jone’s Diary/
2) Predicate:
a) verbal predicate:
E.g. Nobody under the table, nobody under the sofa. (Dickens)
b) (subject and) part of the verbal predicate:
E.g. See you tomorrow. Much obliged to you. (Galsworthy)
c) link-verb:
E.g. It was a lovely afternoon, warm; the sea calm and blue. (Galsworthy)
d) pedicative:
E.g. "Are you well?" "I believe, I am". (Bronte)
e) the auxiliary verb of an analytical form:
E.g. You will wait and see papa. (Dickens)
NOTE: Elliptical sentences also occur in elliptical inscriptions:
E.g. English spoken here. Smoking strictly prohibited. The same subject continued. Continued on page. No hands wanted.
3) object (It is often omitted in short sentences after the verbs to do, to forget, to know, to tell, especially in lively speech):
E.g. Don't you know her address? – No, I forget. (Galsworthy)
4) Sometimes several parts of the sentence are omitted, especially in answer to a question or in lively speech:
E.g. "Where is he?" "In the picture-gallery".(Galsworthy)
One-member Sentences
One-member sentences consist of only one principle part, which cannot be regarded as either subject or a predicate. As the subject and the predicate are correlative notions, the principle part of a one-member sentence can only conditionally be interpreted as subject or predicate.
One-member sentences consisting of a noun or a noun with its attributes are called nominative sentences. The existence of the object denoted by the noun is asserted in these sentences:
E.g. A horse's feet. The barking of a dog. The gradual approach of all sounds. (Dickens)
These sentences always refer to the present. They are uttered with an especially expressive intonation.
Nominative sentences differ from elliptical sentences with a suppressed verbal predicate in that they do not contain any secondary parts which might be connected with a verbal predicate.
Let’s analyse the following sentences:
E.g. A small but cozy room; in the background a little writing table; to the left a sofa. We see that only the first is a one-member sentence containing a noun with its attributes. The two other sentences are elliptical because the prepositional phrases "in the background" and "to the left" are adverbial modifiers of place which may refer only to a suppressed verbal predicate It is true that in a different context the very same prepositional phrases might serve as attributes to some noun:
E.g. The table in the background was a writing table.
But that is not the case in our examples, where the adverbial character of the two phrases is quite evident.
Nominative sentences share the characteristics of two-member sentences; they may be unextended or extended, declarative, interrogative, exclamatory or negative in their form:
E.g. What a still, hot, perfect day! (Bronte)
E.g. A thunderstorm? Let's look for shelter. (Galsworthy)
Imperative sentences with the predicate verb in the imperative mood also belong to one-member sentences. Although the subject of the imperative sentence is not expressed, it is clear that the action of the verb refers to the 2nd person (the person addressed).
E.g. Come here! (Dickens)
E.g. Don't wait for me. (Galsworthy)
E.g. Don't you believe him. (Maugham)
One-member sentences may comprise an infinitive in the function of the principle part:
E.g. To put a child in that position! (Galsworthy)
E.g. Only to think of it! (Galsworthy)
E.g. Why not go there immediately? (Galsworthy)
One-member sentences may also be formed by:
a) words of affirmation and negation (yes/no)
E.g. "You'll let me go?" 'No."(Galsworthy)
b) modal words (certainly, of course, (all) right, sure, etc.)
E.g. "Of course!"; 'Right, sir", said the cabman. (Bennett)
c) set expressions of polite address
E.g. Thank you! Sorry! Please. Never mind. Not at all. Thanks.
COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES
The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types: declarative (изъявительные), interrogative (вопросительные), imperative (повелительные) and exclamatory (восклицательные) sentences. These types differ in the aim of communication and express statements, questions, commands and exclamations respectively. These types are usually applied to simple sentences. [Кобрина]
A declarative sentence expresses a statement, in the affirmative or negative form, which gives the reader or the listener some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and feelings:
E.g. Julie’s favourite words are ‘icky’ and ‘glam’. /P. Sykes Bergdorf Blondes/ [declarative affirmative sentence]
E.g. I couldn’t help myself turning bright red. /H. Feilding Bridget Jone’s Diary/ [declarative negative sentence]
An interrogative sentence expresses a question. Its communicative function consists in asking for information. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to: general questions, special questions, alternative questions and disjunctive (or tag-) questions.
A general question asks whether some event or phenomenon exists or doesn’t exist, which requires a positive (or negative) reply. This question begins with an auxiliary, modal or link verb followed by the subject and is characterized by a rising tone. Such question is also called a ‘yes-no’ question:
E.g. Did you hear about Florean Fortescue, Remus? /J.K. Rowling Harry Potter & The Half-blood Prince/
E.g. Are you going to put it on? /J. Lloyd & E. Reese Come Together/
E.g. Can I take you for a romantic dinner at Jo Jo to night? /Plum Sykes Bengdorf Blondes/
A special question (or ‘wh’-question) shows what information is required. It begins with an interrogative pronoun, adverb or adverbial phrase, which function as a question word (what, which, who, whom, whose, where, when, why, how, how long, how often, etc.):
E.g. How long does that leave me? /J. Harris Five Quarters of the Orange/
An alternative question implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. Like a general question, it opens with an auxiliary/link verb. The conjunction ‘or’ links either two homogenous parts of the sentence or two coordinate clauses.
A tag-question (disjunctive question)
E.g. Then I’ve got to track down the rest of the Horcruxes, haven’t I? /J.K. Rowling Harry Potter & The Half-blood Prince/
