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РЕГИСТРАЦИЯ ЭКСКУРСИЯ

лекскикология:
» Тенденции развития новейшей китайской лексики.
» Сложносокращенные слова. Модели сложносокращенных слов.
» Предмет лексикологии и ее практическое значение. Определение лексики и лексиколо
» Методы исследования лексики.
» Основные единицы лексики китайского языка. Классы первичных лексем
» Аффиксальное словообразование. Критерии выделения суффик-сов и полусуффиксов
» Суффиксы и полусуффиксы «лиц». Суффиксы и полусуффиксы «не лиц».
» Омонимия в китайском языке.
» Лексические комплексы с неравноправным типом связи.
» Антонимия в китайском языке
» Моносемия и полисемия в китайском языке
» Общая характеристика чэнъюев, их структура, происхождение и синтаксические функц
» Иностранные заимствования в китайском языке.
» Фразеология китайского языка. Виды фразеологических единиц, краткая характеристи
» Лексические комплексы с равноправным типом связи
» Пути развития словарного состава языка. Словообразование. Краткая характеристика
» Словосложение. Типы словосложения.
» модели новых слов. План содержания и план выражения неологизмов
» Слово и его значение. Соотношения между значением слова и понятием. Лексическое
» Характеристика языковой ситуации в Гонконге и на Тайване
» Синонимия в китайском языке.
» Словообразовательные типы. Модели словообразования (классификация А.Л. Семенас
техком:
» методы теории коммуникации
» Проблема эффективности коммуникации. Коммуникативные цели, коммуникативные страт
» современные подходы
» Структурные модели коммуникации: понятие модели коммуникации, модель Аристотеля,
» Структурные модели коммуникации: модель Шеннона—Уивера. модель М. де Флера, цирк
» структурные модели : двухканальная модель коммуникации, модель двусту
» Основные элементы коммуникационного процесса: источник, кодирование и декодирова
» stages/participants of the tc process
» Plain Language Movement. Plain style guidelines.
» Ethics in the Technical Workplace
» Style in Technical Communication
» Terminology in Technical Communication
» design
» Technical Definitions
» Technical Descriptions
» Technical Proposals
» copyright
» Linguistic status of technical texts according to the Russian linguistic traditi
» instructions.
» Principles of cross-cultural design.
» Translation and localization in Technical Communication
» Cultural elements in technical texts.
» Defining the rhetorical situation.
» Profiling readers of technical documents
» Profiling contexts of use of technical documents.
» The Definition and Basic Elements of Technical Communication ÒIntroduction
» коммуникационные барьеры
» Типы, виды, формы, средства и сферы коммуникации.
» Подходы к выделению предмета теории коммуникации.
» Законы и основные категории теории коммуникации.
» Функции теории коммуникации.
» Основные значения понятия «коммуникация». Чем объясняется разнообразие подходов
I семестр:
» текстовая импликация и перевод
» Эволюция определения понятия «перевод».
» Лингвистика и перевод.
» Общая проблематика и методология теории перевода и
» определение первода
» Перевод и другие смежные науки социального цикла
» Зарождение переводческой деятельности. Перевод в Д
» Перевод в средние века. Перевод Библии как отражен
» Перевод в эпоху Возрождения
» классический перевод в европе 17-18
» Романтический период в переводе
» 11. Зарождение переводческой деятельности в России
» перевод в эпоху Петра1. Указы Петра1 о переводе
» Российский перевод конца 18 века начала 19 век
» Переводческая деятельность в России 19в. В.А.
» перевод.деятельность в россии советского периода
» понятие коммуникации и ком.акта
» схема перевода как акта меж.коммуникации.
» функция переводчика
» перевод и другие виды меж.посредничества
» семантика языкового знака и перевод.сем.основыяз.п
» прагматика яз.знака и перевод
» синтактика яз.знака и перевод
» Текст как центральное звено коммуникативного акта
» инвариант в переводе
» как оцен.крит.перевода эквивалентность комиссарова
» уровневая модель швейцера
» адекватность перевода
» факторы опр.процесс перевода
» безэквивалент.лексика проблема перевода
» Калькирование - как прием перевода
» отношение ориг.и пере.интереференция
» Грамматические трансформации
» специфика семиот.организации перевод.факторы
» Сочетание денотативных и коннотативных элементов з
» Лексико-грамматические трансформации конкретизации
» факторы опред.процесс перевода
» прагмати.потенциал текста
» переводческая адаптация как учет особ.рецеп.перево
» прагмема и подходы к ее переводу
» перевод фразеологизмов
» Перевод иноязычных вкраплений
» каламбур
» социолинг.проблем 43
» экономика
» безработица
» стагнация
» центробанк и его функции
» депрессия
» комбанк
» инфляция
» инфляция2
» денежная масса
» вексель,акселерат
» ввп
» внп
» 1. Что такое экономические потребности и экономические блага
» Кривая производственных возможностей
» экономическая теория
» Классификация способов производства
» Рынок. Понятия, связанные с термином рынка
» Деньги, их функции в рыночной экономике
» Законы спроса и предложения. Ценовые и неценовые факторы спроса и предложения
» Эластичность спроса и предложения
» Полезность блага. Закон убывающей предельной полезности
» Теория потребительского выбора. Правило максимизации функции полезности
» Виды спроса. Эффекты социального спроса
» Производство. Основные понятия. Совокупный и предельный продукт
» Закон убывающей предельной производительности
» Правило минимизации предельных издержек и максимизации прибыли
» Изокванта и изокоста
» Фирма. Производственный капитал. Основные понятия
» Предпринимательство, его функции и организационно-правовые формы
» Издержки и прибыль. Виды издержек
» Общий, средний и предельный доход. Правило минимизации предельных издержек
» типы рыночных структур.совершенная конкуренция
» Чистая монополия
» монополистическая конкуренция
» олигополия
» рынки ресурсов
» Спрос и предложение на рынке труда
» Номинальная и реальная заработная плата. Факторы, влияющие на уровень заработ
» Виды и формы заработной платы
» макроэкономика
» Что такое ВВП. Способы расчета ВВП
» Система национальных счетов и ее составляющие
» недостатки снс и альтернативные показатели развития экономики
» Понятие совокупного спроса и его составляющие
» 2. Совокупное предложение. Отрезки кривой совокупного предложения
» Неценовые факторы совокупного предложения
» 4. Понятие макроэкономического равновесия. Модель AD - AS
» 1. Понятие безработицы в макроэкономике. Уровень безработицы
» 1. Понятие и история возникновения инфляции
» кривая филлипса.инфляция
» Антиинфляционная политика России
» Сущность и причины экономического цикла
» виды эконом.циклов
» антицикл.политика
» Кредитно-денежная система Спрос и предложение на денежном рынке
» Банковская система. Функции банков
» 3. Создание кредитных денег. Денежный мультипликатор
» Денежно-кредитная политика государства
» Формирование мировой экономической системы
» Развитие теорий международной торговли
» Внешнеторговая государственная политика
» Платежный баланс. Валютный рынок.
» экономический рост
» кривая беззраличия ибюджетное ограничение
» городская литра
» ручина
» культурная революция
» первая лекция
» 2 менцзы даодецзин
» цаоцао дуфу
» философские трактаты
» балбала
» лусинмаодунгоможо
» послекнр
» буддизм
» среднийвеклитры
» юля

instructions

Three types of instructions are commonly produced in the technical workplace:

Instructions—Instructions describe how to perform a specific task. They typically describe how to assemble a product or do something step-by-step.

Procedures/Protocols—Procedures and protocols are written to ensure consistency and quality in a workplace. In hospitals, for example, doctors and nurses are often asked to write procedures that describe how to handle emergency situations or care for a specific injury or illness. Similarly, scientists will use protocols to ensure consistent methods in the laboratory.

Specifications—Engineers and technicians write specifications (often called the "specs") to describe in exact detail how a product is assembled or how a routine process is completed.

Basic Features of Instructions

Instructions tend to follow a consistent step-by-step pattern, whether you are describing how to make coffee or how to assemble an automobile engine (Figure 20.1).

 

Here are the basic features of instructions:

• specific and precise title

• introduction with background information

• list of parts, tools, and conditions required

• sequentially ordered steps

• graphics

• safety information

• conclusion that signals the completion of the task

lanning and Researching Instructions

When you are asked to write a set of instructions, you should first consider the situations in which they might be used. You also need to research the process you are describing so that you fully understand it and can describe it in detail.

Planning

When planning the instructions, first gain a thorough grasp of your subject, your readers, and their needs. A good way to start is to answer the Five-W and How Questions that define the rhetorical situation:

Who might use these instructions?

Why are these instructions needed?

What should the instructions include?

Where will the instructions be used?

When will the instructions be used?

How will these instructions be used?

Once you have answered these questions, you are ready to define the rhetorical situation that will shape how you write your instructions.

 

SUBJECT Make sure you are completely familiar with the task you are trying to describe. Give yourself time to use the product or follow the process. Try to identify any unexpected difficulties or dangers. Tinker with the product or process, looking for places where your readers might have trouble or make mistakes.

 

take Note

Don't make the expert's mistake. Experts have great familiarity with the product or process, so they often overlook potential problems for nonexperts. You need to anticipate these problems.

PURPOSE Take a moment to consider and compose your purpose statement, limiting yourself to one sentence. That way, you will be very clear about what you are trying to accomplish.

Some key verbs for the purpose statement might include the following:

to instruct to guide

to show to lead

to illustrate to direct

to explain to train

to teach to tutor

For example, here are a few purpose statements that might be used in a set of instructions:

The purpose of these instructions is to show you how to use your new QuickTake i700 digital video camera.

These procedures will demonstrate the suturing required to complete and close up a knee operation.

These specifications illustrate the proper use of the Series 3000 Router to trim printed circuit boards.

A version of your purpose statement will likely appear in the introduction of your instructions.

READERS Of course, it is difficult to anticipate all the types of people who might use your instructions. But people who decide to use a set of instructions usually have common characteristics, backgrounds, and motivations that you can use to make your instructions more effective.

Primary readers (action takers) are people who will use your instructions to complete a task. What is their skill level? How well do they understand the product or process? What is their age and ability? Typically instructions are written for the primary readers who have minimal experience with and knowledge of the task.

Secondary readers (advisors) are people who might supervise or help the primary readers complete the task. What is the skill level of these secondary readers? Are they training/teaching the primary readers? Are they helping them assemble the product or complete the process?

Tertiary readers (evaluators) often use instructions to ensure quality. Auditors and quality experts will review procedures and specifications closely when evaluating products or processes in a technical workplace. Also, sets of instructions can be used as evidence in lawsuits. So, these kinds of readers need to be considered and their needs anticipated.

Gatekeeper readers (supervisors) will need to look over your instructions before they are sent out with a product or approved for use in the workplace. These gatekeeper readers may or may not be experts in your subject. They will be checking the accuracy, safety, and quality of your instructions.

Take Note

Try not to overestimate your readers' skills and understanding. If your instructions are specific and use simple language, novice users will appreciate the added help. Experienced users may find your instructions a bit too detailed, but they can just skim information they don't need. In most cases, you are better off giving your readers more information than they need.

CONTEXT OF USE Put yourself in your readers' place for a moment. When and where will your readers use the instructions? In their living rooms? At a workbench? At a construction site? In an office cubicle? At night? Each of these different places and times will require you to adjust your instructions to your readers' needs.

Depending on the context of use, instructions can follow a variety of formats. They may be included in a user's manual, or they could be part of a poster explaining how to accomplish a task. Increasingly, instructions are being placed on websites for viewing or downloading.

 

Cross-Cultural Readers and Contexts

As world trade continues to expand, instructions need to be written for cross-cultural readers. In fact, instructions written in two or more languages are often included with products. As you profile your readers, you should anticipate how your instructions will be adjusted for cross-cultural readers. Here are a few suggestions.

TRANSLATE THE TEXT If the instructions are being sent to a place where another language is spoken, you should have them translated. Then, include both the translated and English version with the product.

USE BASIC ENGLISH If the instructions might be sent to people who are not fluent in English, you should use basic words and phrases. Avoid any jargon, idioms, and metaphors that will be understood only by North Americans (e.g.,"senior citizens," "bottom line," or "back to square one"). Companies that do business with cross-cultural markets often maintain lists of basic words to use in documentation.

USE ICONS CAREFULLY Some symbols commonly used in North America can be offensive to other cultures. A pointing finger, for example, is offensive in some Central and South American countries. An "OK" sign is offensive in Arab nations. Dogs are "unclean" animals in many parts of the world, so cartoon dogs often do not work well in documentation for multicultural readers. To avoid these problems, minimize your use of animals, human characters, or their body parts whenever possible. Make sure that all the icons you use do not confuse or offend your readers in some unintended way.

CHECK MEANINGS OF NAMES AND SLOGANS Famously, names and slogans don't always translate well into other languages. For example, Pepsi's "Come alive with Pepsi" was translated into, "Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave" in Taiwan. In Spanish, Chevrolet's popular car the "Nova" means "It doesn't go." Coors's slogan "Turn it loose" translated into "Suffer from diarrhea" in some Spanish-speaking countries. So, check with people who are familiar with the target culture and its language to see if your names and slogans have meanings other than those intended.

USE IMAGES CAREFULLY Images can convey unintended messages to the readers, especially in high-context cultures like those of Asia, parts of Africa, and the Middle East. For instance, how people are dressed in photographs can signal respect or disrespect. Obvious displays of emotion in professional settings can be seen as rude. In some conservative Middle Eastern countries, meanwhile, photographs of people are used for identification only. So, before moving forward with your instructions, you might let someone from the target culture look over the images for any unintended meanings.

 

Researching

Once you have defined the rhetorical situation, you should spend some time doing research on the task you are describing in your instructions. Research consists of gaining a thorough understanding of your subject by considering it from several angles (Figure 20.5). Here are a few research strategies that are especially useful when writing instructions.

DO BACKGROUND RESEARCH You should research the history and purpose of the product or process you are describing. If the product or process is new, find out why it was developed and study the documents that shaped its development. If the product or process is not new, determine whether it has evolved or changed. Also, collect any prior instructions, procedures, or specifications that might help you write your own documentation.

When doing research to write a set of instructions, you should study your subject from a few different perspectives.

Researching and Instructions

mAKE OBSERVATIONS Observe people using the product. If, for example, you are writing instructions for using a coffeemaker, observe someone making coffee with it. Pay attention to his or her experiences, especially any mistakes. Your notes from these experiments will help you anticipate some of the situations and problems your readers will experience.

 

ASK SUBJECT MATTER EXPERTS (SMEs) Interview the experts who are very familiar with the product or have used the procedure. They may be able to give you some insight or pointers into how the product is actually used or how the procedure is completed. They might also be able to point out trouble spots where nonexperts might have problems.

USE YOUR SENSES As you work with the product or follow the process, pay attention to all your senses. Where appropriate, take notes about appearance, sounds, smells, textures, and tastes. These details will add depth to your instructions. They will also help your readers determine if they are following the directions properly.

DESCRIBE MOTION AND CHANGE Pay special attention to the movements of your subject and the way it changes as you complete the steps. Each step will lead to some kind of motion or change. By noting these motions and changes, you will be better able to describe them.COLLECT VISUALS If available, collect graphics that illustrate the steps in your instructions. If necessary, you can create your own photographs with a digital camera, or you can use drawings to illustrate your subject.

Organizing and Drafting Instructions

Like other technical documents, instructions have an introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction typically offers background information on the task being described. The body describes the steps required to complete the task. The conclusion usually gives readers a chance to check their work.

Specific and Precise Title

The title of your instructions should clearly describe the specific task the reader will complete.

Take Note

If your readers have a negative attitude (perhaps they are annoyed that they need to read instructions), you can use antonyms to counteract their feelings. For example, to sooth annoyed readers, words like satisfy, pleasure, please, delight, and fulfill can be used to counteract their negativity. Don't overuse them, though, because angry readers may detect your attempt to soothe them.

Graphics

With computers, a variety of ways are available for you to add graphics to instructions. You can add illustrations and diagrams. Or, you can use a digital camera or scanner to add graphics to your text.

When including graphics, it is best to number and title them. Then, refer to the graphics by number in the written instructions. That way, readers will be able to quickly locate them. Each graphic should appear next to or below the step that refers to it. Graphics should also appear on the same page as the step that refers to them.

Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

In many ways, instructions reflect the quality of the product, service, and manufacturer. If the documentation looks unprofessional or has errors, readers will doubt the quality of the company behind it. So, you should leave yourself plenty of time for revising, editing, and proofreading. Also, leave yourself some time to user-test your instructions on some real readers.

Revising for Content, Style, and Design

When you are finished drafting the set of instructions, spend time critically studying the document's content, style, and design.

• The content needs to be complete and include all the information readers need to complete the task. Look for places where steps are missing or unclear. Identify steps that would be clearer with a follow-up note or comment. Identify places where hazard statements are needed.

• The style should be concise and clear. Keep sentences, especially commands, short and to the point. Where possible, replace complex words with simpler, plainer terms. Meanwhile, use words that reflect readers' attitudes or emotions as they will be using your documentation.

• The design should enhance readers' ability to follow the written instructions. Make sure you have used headings, notes, and graphics consistently. The page layout should also be consistent from the first page to the last.

As you revise, ask yourself whether the content, style, and design are appropriate for the readers you defined in your reader profile. Your instructions should be usable by the least experienced, least knowledgeable person among your readers.


12.06.2014; 19:01
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