4.1. Interaction Of Different Types Of Lexical Meanings
Tropes based on the interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings: Zeugma, Pun.
Tropes based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings: Epithet, Oxymoron.
Tropes based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings: Antonomasia.
Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon: Simile, Periphrasis, Euphemism, Hyperbole, and Understatement.
Peculiar use of set expressions: the Cliché, Proverbs and Sayings, Epigrams, Quotations, Allusions, Decomposition of Set Phrases.
4.1.1. Tropes Based on the Interaction of Two Logical Meanings
Metaphor is a trope, which means transference of some quality from one object to another. It is based on the simultaneous realization of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings. Metaphor is a method of description, which identifies one thing with another.
There are three types of transference in Metaphor:
- Transference of the name of one object to another
E.g. He was already familiar with the geography of the house.
- Transference of the name of the action
E.g. He shot after her. /He suddenly started running very fast/
E.g. The time was bleeding for her. /went very slowly/
- Transference of the typical features of one thing to another
E.g. The yellow pancake was high in the sky. /about the sun/
E.g. The old butterfly was sitting in her rocky-chair on the patio. /about an elderly lady/
Metaphor is based not so much on similarity of the two objects/actions/features, but on their identity. Metaphors, like all SDs, can be classified according to the degree of unexpectedness. Thus, metaphors which are absolutely unexpected (quite unpredictable) are called genuine; while those which are commonly used in speech and therefore fixed in dictionaries, are called trite (or dead).
Trite metaphors are sometimes filled with new vigour. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words, bearing some reference to the main word. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged.
E.g. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down. (Ch. Dickens)
The verb to bottle up is explained in dictionaries as follows: “to keep in check”, “to conceal, to restrain”. The metaphor in the word can hardly be felt, but it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb to cork down/.
E.g. Mr. Dombey’s cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford a drop or two of its content, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter. (Ch. Dickens)
The principal metaphor may be called the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words that bear reference to the central image – contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cup is the central image, while its contributory images are full, drop, content and to sprinkle.
Metaphor is usually expressed by verbs, nouns, adverbs, etc.
Metonymy is a trope based on a different type of the interaction between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts, which these two meanings represent.
There are several types of association in metonymy:
- The name of the container stands for the name of the thing contained
E.g. Will you have another glass? /of wine/
E.g. He drank another bottle. /of beer/
- The name of the material stands for the name of the thing made of it.
E.g. Your satin needs ironing. /the outfit made of satin/
- The name of the creator stands for the name of the thing made by him
E.g. She has bought two Glazunovs. /pictures made by this painter/
- The name of the symbol stands for the name of the thing symbolized.
E.g. He made his way through the perfume and conversation. /through the crowd of perfumed and talking people/
- The name of the instrument stands for the name of the action it performs
E.g. Well, Mr. Weller, you’re a good whip and can do what you like with your horses. (Ch. Dickens)
- The name of the concrete thing stands for the name of an abstract notion
E.g. Elisabeth II is the crown of Britain. /the queen/
- The name of the part stands for the whole, and vice versa (synecdoche)
E.g. She saw around her… multitudes of violently red lips, powdered cheeks and cold hard eyes.
Metonymy is usually expressed by nouns. It differs from metaphor in the way it is decoded. In metaphor one image excludes the other, while in metonymy it does not.
Irony is a SD based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, which stand in opposition to each other.
E.g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.
The word delightful acquires the meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, i.e. “unpleasant”, “not delightful”. The word containing irony is strongly marked by intonation. Irony is used to express irritation, regret, pity, mockery, etc. Bitter socially or politically aimed irony is called sarcasm.
4.1.2. Tropes Based on the Interaction
of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context. The two meanings of the word are realized in the context without the repetition of this word. It is often used in poetry and emotive prose.
E.g. Mr. Stiggings took his hat and his leave.
E.g. Dora plunged at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room.
E.g. A door on the second landing opened, and a face poked out wearing horn-rimmed glasses and a very annoyed expression.
Pun is another SD based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of а word or phrase. It aims at a humorous effect and is used in jokes, riddles, etc. It has much in common with zeugma, but it differs from it in its structure. Zeugma is the realization of the verb which refers to different subjects or objects, while pun is more independent. It can, for example, be based on:
- The play upon words with the same spelling and sounding, but different meaning
E.g. «Do you serve crabs here?»
«We serve anyone! Sit down!»
E.g. Army doctor: «Do you have any physical defects?»
Inductee; «Yes, no guts.»
- The play upon homophones (sound alike, but different in spelling and meaning)
E.g. «The storm caused a whole lot of damage»
«A hole lot of what?»
- The play upon mix of phrase and their word-components
E.g. «Someone at the door?»
«Some four at the door.»
E.g. «Is somebody in the room?»
«Yes, there is some body here.»
4.1.3. Tropes Based on the Interaction
of Logical & Emotive Meanings
Epithet is a SD based on the interplay of logical and emotive meanings in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object (both existing and imaginary). It shows the evaluative, subjective attitude of the writer/speaker to the thing described. Epithets may be classified semantically and structurally.
Semantically, epithets are divided into:
- associated (those which point to a feature which essential to the object they describe, i.e. the idea expressed by the epithet is inherent in the concept of the object)
E.g. dark forest; careful attention; fantastic terrors.
- unassociated (they are used to characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it).
E.g. A heart-burning smile; sullen earth; voiceless sands.
Structurally, epithets are divided into:
- Single: E.g. She smiled cuttingly at him. /she made him suffer by smiling/
- Two-step (i.e. adverb + adjective): E.g. a pompously majestic female
- Phrase (i.e. a group of hyphenated words): E.g. a don't-you-touch-me look; a do-it-yourself attitude.
- Inverted epithets (or reversed, i.e. presented by of-phrases): E.g. a devil of a job; the shadow of a smile.
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adiective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense.
E.g. low skyscrapers; sweet sorrow; a pleasantly ugly face.
Oxymoron helps to emphasize contradictory qualities as a unity in the described phenomenon.
E.g. She was dressed with careful carelessness.
Oxymoron can create a humorous effect:
E.g. He seemed doomed to liberty (он был обречен на свободу).
4.1.4. Tropes Based on the Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meanings
Antonomasia is based on the interplay of the logical and nominal meanings of the word, which helps to single out one definite object out of a whole class of similar objects. It is a trope in which a Proper name is used instead of a Common noun or vice versa; here the nominal meaning of a Proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires a new nominal component.
E.g. He is an Apollo. /a proper name/
E.g. I don't want just any man for a husband, it must be Mr. Right. /a common noun/
Antonomasia stresses the most characteristic feature of a person. It is also represented by ‘speaking names’, whose origin from common nouns is clearly perceived:
E.g. Mr. Snake; Inspector Blunt.
4.2. Intensification of a Certain Feature of a Thing or Phenomenon
Simile is a SD based on a deliberate comparison of two objects, belonging to two different classes. This trope is easy to recognize because of the form words, used to connect the compared objects: ‘like’, ‘as though’, ’as if’, ‘as…as’, ‘such as’, ‘seem’, etc.
Simile is used for the purpose of expressive evaluation, emotive explanation and highly individual description.
E.g. He stood immovable like a rock.
Periphrasis is a SD based on the usage of a round-about form of expression instead of a simpler one. There are two types of periphrasis: figurative (metaphoric or metonymic) and logical (the whole phrase is synonymous with the word meant)
E.g. the cap and gown /student/; my better half /my wife/; a gentleman of the long robe /a lawyer/
Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis. It is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. For instance, instead of the word ‘to die’ people prefer to say: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone, etc. Euphemisms aim at producing a deliberately mild effect.
Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their sphere of application: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical, 4) parliamentary.
The life of euphemisms is short, because they very soon become closely associated with the object they represent, and give way to new words.
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a feature essential to the object or phenomenon. It is characteristic of every day speech, used as a signal of roused emotions.
E.g. He had wine enough to wash an elephant.
There are words, which are used in Hyperbole oftener than others: ‘all’, ‘every’, ‘everybody’, a million’, ‘a thousand’, ‘ever’, ‘never’, etc.
E.g. I told him this hundreds of times!
Understatement is a trope aimed at deliberate belittling
E.g. He had reddish hair
4.3. Peculiar Use of Set Expressions
A cliché is an expression that has become hackneyed and trite.
Proverbs and Sayings are facts of language. They are brief statements showing in a condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas They are collected in special dictionaries.
E.g. Out of sight, out of mind.
An epigram is a SD similar to a proverb; but they are made by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are invented by people in general.
E.g. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. (Keats)
A quotation is an exact repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech, and the like used by way of illustration. By repeating a passage in a new environment we attach more importance to the utterance. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (‘…’), dashes (-) or italics.
An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. It differs from quotation, because it does not need to repeat the exact wording of the original. An allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase that may be regarded as the key word whose meaning is broadened into a general concept.
E.g. Where is the road now, and its merry incidents of life!.. Old honest, pimple-nosed coachmen? […] Is old Weller alive or dead? (Thackeray) /here the allusion is made to the coachman, Old Mr. Weller, the father of Dickens’s famous character, Sam Weller/
Decomposition of Set phrases deals with linguistic fusions (i.e. set phrases whose meaning is understood only from the combination as a whole. E.g. to pull a person’s leg = to make a joke at him). The SD of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings, which make up the component parts of the fusion.
E.g. I don’t mean to say that I know of my own knowledge, what there is particularly dead about a door-nail. (Dickens) /here we see decomposition of the phrase ‘as dead as a door-nail’/
