14. Introduction

         14.1. The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival character.

         There are two participles in English – Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past participle. These are not very suitable names: both participles can be used to talk about  the past, present or future.

         Participle I is built the same way as gerund – by adding the suffix –ing to the stem of the verb.

                   Who is the man talking to Elizabeth?

         Participle II of regular verbs is formed by adding –ed, or –d to the stem; irregular verbs have special forms of Participle II.

         14.2. The adjectival and adverbial character of the participle is seen in its syntactic functions of an attribute and an adverbial modifier.

                   I like the noise of falling rain.

         Some participles have lost their verbal nature and become adjectives: interesting, charming, complicated, furnished, etc.

         The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows.

a)     Participle I can take  a direct object.

Having failed my medical exams, I took up teaching.

b)    The participle can be modified by an adverb.

Knowing her pretty well, I realized that something was wrong.

c)     The participle has tense and voice distinctions. Participle I has analytical forms.

 

15. Forms of the Participle

  15.1. Participle I has the same forms as the gerund.

 

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	playing	Being played
Perfect	having played	Having been played

                  

         Participle II has only one form, e.g. played.

         15.2. a) Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb.

                   I heard you laughing.

b) Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

         Having waited an hour, the crowd were getting impatient.

c) Participle I Indefinite can denote a prior action when two short connected actions are close in time.

Opening the file, the detective took out a newspaper cutting.

              But when the first action is not short, the perfect form must be used.

                   They left the restaurant, having spent two hours over lunch.

 

                5.3. a) Participle II can express both an action simultaneous with, or prior to, the action expressed by the finite verb. The latter meaning is more frequent.

                   Cut above the right eye, the boxer was unable to continue.

            b) Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning.

                   The terrorists used a stolen car. (= The car was stolen.)

            c) A few intransitive verbs (usually denoting passing into a new state) can be used as attributes with active meanings.

                   a fallen leaf (= a leaf has fallen)

                   vanished civilizations                       faded colours

                   a retired general                               swollen ankles

    an escaped prisoner

                               Rescuers are still working in the ruins of the collapsed hotel. 

16. Functions of the participle

         The Participle may have different syntactic functions; the two main functions are attribute and adverbial modifier.

         16.1. Attribute

         a) In this function the participle may precede its head-word. Usually it is a single participle.

                   Boiling water turns to steam.

         Sometimes we can put an adverb before the participle.

                   fanatically cheering crowds

                   properly trained staff

         We cannot use longer phrases.

         b) A single participle often comes after its head-word.

I watched the match because I knew some of the people playing.   (=…the people who were playing).

                Those is often used with Participle II to mean “the ones who are/were…”.

                   Most of those questioned refused to answer.

         A few participles change their meaning according to their position.

         Compare:   a concerned expression (‘worried’)

                            the people concerned (‘the people who are affected, involved’)

         c) If the participle has accompanying words, as a rule it follows its head-word.

                   Who is this fat man sitting in the corner?

         d) Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is never used as an attribute, as Participle I in this function cannot express priority: a relative clause must be used instead.

                   The gang who stole the jewels got away.

         Participle I Indefinite Passive is seldom used attributively.

Industrial training is the subject being discussed in Parliament this afternoon.

         e) An attribute expressed by the participle may be detached (“loose”), i.e. it has a certain independence in the sentence, the connection between the participle and its head-word is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma. In meaning, it is close to an adverbial modifier.

                   To Robin, sunbathing on the beach, all his problems seemed far away.

The housekeeper went out of her room, attracted by the ringing of the bell.

         16.2. Adverbial Modifier

         In this function, Participle I is often, and Participle II always, used after conjunctions when, while, as if/though, if, etc.

         Participial adverbial modifiers are rather literary.

 

         - Adverbial Modifier of Time

                   Kate fell asleep watching television last night.

         If the action expressed by the Participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb, the conjunction when or while is often used.

                   Mike hurt his hand while playing badminton.

         The participial adverbial modifier can come first.

                   Coming up the steps, I fell over.

         It may also come at the end of the sentence.

                   She took a note from her purse, slamming it down on the counter.

         Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. It is an adverbial modifier of cause. Time can be expressed by a clause (When you are ready…, When he was a boy,…) or a phrase (When ready,…, When a boy,…).

                   While in Germany, he got to know a family of musicians.

         Participle II in this function is used after the conjunctions while, when(ever), until, once.

         This pattern is common in instructions.

                   Once opened, the contents should be consumed within three days.

 

         - Adverbial Modifier of Comparison

         In this function, the Participle is used after the conjunctions as if and as though.

                   He said it as if thinking aloud.

                   Mrs. Carrington shook her head as if lost in wonder.

 

         Participle I is also used as an adverbial modifier of

-cause:

                   Being rather busy, I completely forgot the time.

                   Not feeling very well, James decided to lie down.

         - manner and attendant circumstances:

                   They dumped waste into the river, killing all the fish.

         Participle II is also used as an adverbial modifier of

         - condition:

                   If taken daily, vitamin pills can improve your health.

         - concession:

                   Though asked, she would not say a word.

         16.3. Predicative

                            The terrorists’ car was stolen. (=It was not theirs.)

Compare:    The car was stolen by the terrorists. (=the Passive form, denotes an action)

                            His indifference was infuriating.

         16.4. Part of Compound Verbal Predicate (See 18.2.)

                            Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the hall below.

                            The jewels were believed lost.

         16.5. Part of a Complex Object (See 18.1.)

                            Have you ever heard a nightingale singing?

                            I can make myself understood very well in French.

         16.6. Participle I is used as a Parenthesis.

Strictly speaking, you can’t come in here unless you are a club member.

                            Broadly speaking, …; Considering everything,… 

18. Predicative Constructions with the Participle

         In Modern English we find the following constructions with the Participle:

18.1. The Objective Participial Construction

This is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence, the construction is used as a Complex Object. The verbal element is Participle I Indefinite or Participle II.

The Objective Participial Construction is found:

a) after verbs of sense perception such as see, hear, watch, listen to, feel, smell, notice, observe, etc.

                   We heard you arguing with your brother.

A verb of perception can also take an object +bare infinitive (the Objective-with-the Infinitive Construction). The infinitive means a complete action, the participle means action for a period of time.

                   I saw them cut the tree down. It didn’t take long.

         I saw them cutting the tree down as I went past.

But when we talk about a short action, we can use either patterns.

                   Bernard watched the horse jump/jumping the fence.

b) after some verbs of mental activity, such as consider, understand, imagine.

                   She considers herself engaged to Edwin.

c) after some verbs of wish, such as wish, want, desire, (would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer, (would) hate. Only Participle II is used in this pattern.

                  Pamela wanted the carpet cleaned. (except after imagine)

In patterns b) and c) the Infinitive can also be used.

                   Pamela wanted the carpet to be cleaned.

                   Pamela wanted Jack to clean the carpet.

d) after the verbs have, get, set, keep, leave, find and catch Participle I is used to denote an action for a period of time, an action in progress.

         They caught a student cheating in the exam.

After get, have, make, find Participle II is also used.

         The police found the body buried in the garden.

Have/get + object + Participle II means that the action is performed at the request of the subject. This pattern is used mainly to talk about professional services to a customer, “arrange for smb. to do smth.”

                   We had a burglar alarm fitted some time ago. (=by a security company)

We can use get informally meaning ‘cause oneself to do something’ or ‘get on with the job’.

         We finally got everything packed into one suitcase.

We can use the same pattern with have meaning ‘experience something, often something unpleasant’.

                   My sister has had some money stolen.

After have, get, leave we can use an infinitive for an action as a whole.

         The trainer had the players run/got the players to run round the field. 

         18.2. The Subjective Participial Construction

         This is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, or some other type of pronoun which is the subject of the sentence; the participle is part of a compound verbal predicate. This construction is literary.

         The construction is chiefly used after these verbs in the passive:

a)    the verbs of sense perception see, hear, feel.

The woman was seen putting the jewellery in her bag.

              In this pattern an infinitive is also used.

                   He was seen to run away.

b)    the verbs catch, find, keep, leave, set.

We were kept waiting for half an hour.

c)     the verbs believe, consider.

The manuscript is believed lost. 

         18.3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

         This is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun; the noun/pronoun is the ‘subject’ of the participle, different from the subject of the sentence.

         In this construction Participle I in all its forms and Participle II are used. The construction is found only in literary style. It is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.

         It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of

-         time:

The hole in the ground having been dug, the men just disappeared.

-         cause:

The restaurant having closed, there was nowhere to eat.

-         attendant circumstances:

A little girl walked past, her doll dragging behind her on the pavement.

We sat silent, her eyes fixed on me.

-         condition, almost always with the participles permitting and failing:

Weather permitting, we’ll start tomorrow.

         The nouns in the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction with Participle II are sometimes used without any article.

                   She waited, head half turned.

 

         18.4. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction

         The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction may be used with the preposition with. As a rule, it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

                   I lay idly in a big chair with my eyes closed.

         18.5. Absolute Constructions without a Participle

         Instead of a participle, the second element of absolute constructions may be an adjective, an adverb, or a prepositional phrase. The constructions are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

a)    The Nominative Absolute Construction is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances.

Breakfast over, he returned to his office.

b)    The Prepositional Absolute construction is mostly used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

I found him ready and waiting for me, with his coat over his arm.