Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding affixes to different types of basis. Derived words formed by affixation may be the result of one or several applications of word-formation rule thus the stems of word making up a word-cluster entering to derivational relations of different degrees. The o degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words that is words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form.
Derived words whose basis are built on simple stems and thus are formed by the application of 1 affix are described as having the 1st degree of derivation. e.g.: atomic.
Derived words formed by 2 consecutive stages of coining possess the 2nd degree of derivation. e.g.: atomically.
Classification. Depending on the purpose of research, various classifications of suffixes have been used and suggested. Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified semantically according to lexico-grammatical groups and semantic fields, and last but not least, according to the types of stems they are added to. In conformity with synchronic approach: the classification according to the part of speech in which the most frequent suffixes of present-day English occur:
1 Noun-forming suffixes: -age bondage; -ance-ence assistance, reference; -ant-ent disinfectant, student; -dom kingdom, freedom; -er writer, type-writer; -ing building, meaning; -ist novelist, communist; -ment government, nourishment; -ness tenderness; -ship friendship.
2 Adjective-forming suffixes: -able-ible-uble unbearable, audible, soluble; -al formal; -ic poetic; -ful delightful; -ive active; -less useless; -like lifelike; -ly manly; -y cloudy, dressy.
3 Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold twofold; -teen fourteen; -th seventh; -ty sixty.
4 Verb-forming suffixes: -ate facilitate; -er glimmer; -en shorten; -fy-ify terrify, speechify, solidify; -ise-ize equalise; -ish establish.
5 Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly coldly; -ward-wards upward, northwards; -wise likewise.
Diachronically the classification of the prefixes is made between: native prefixes: after; by; mis; and foreign: anti; contra; poly-.
Synchronically prefixes are classified:
1 according to the classification of words the preferably form. It must be noted that most of the prefixes in modern English function in more than 1 part of speech. A small group of prefixes may be referred to exclusively verb forming, like: en; be; un. The majority — nominal parts of speech or verb.
2 as to the type of lexico-grammatical character of the base they are divided into: diverbal rewrite, overdo; dinominal expresident; diadjectival uneasy;
3 semantically prefixes fall into: monosemantic mis-; polysemantic dis-;
4 as to the generic denotational meaning there are different groups that are distinguished: negative un-; non-; in-; reversitive untie-; disconnect; pejorative miscalculate; pseudoscientific; prefixes of time and order pre; post; fore; prefix of repetition re-; locative prefixes sub-; transatlantic; super-; intercontinental 5 when viewed from the angle of their stylistic reference English prefixes fall into those characterised by neutralstylistic reference and those possessing quite a definite stylistic value: neutral un; out; re; under; literary-bookish pseudo; altra; by; super; conventional unit.
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AFFIXATION
Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation.
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun) .
There are different classifications of suffixes :
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here :
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),
d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
2. Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),
b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),
c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), -ati ( literati),
d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette),
e) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:
a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization),
b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish),
c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).
4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:
a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.
b) Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.
c) Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.
d) Russian, such as -nik.
5. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:
a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, --ly, -ness.
b) semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward.
c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).
Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as : -er can form nouns with the following meanings : agent,doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).
There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc.
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used : prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) ( cf over the table ).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :
1. Semantic classification :
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc,
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect),
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.
When we analyze such words as : adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as : contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones.
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.
